Update README.md

2025-12-06 17:22:53 +01:00 · 2019-02-19 10:58:17 -05:00
parent 350f2d681d
commit b33e5902ca
1 changed files with 406 additions and 398 deletions
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -12,16 +12,15 @@ An evolving how-to guide for securing a Linux server that, hopefully, also teach
 - [Guide Overview](#guide-overview)
  - [About This Guide](#about-this-guide)
  - [My Use-Case](#my-use-case)
  - [Safe vs. DANGER ZONE](#safe-vs-danger-zone)
  - [Editing Configuration Files - For The Lazy](#editing-configuration-files---for-the-lazy)
  - [Contributing](#contributing)
 - [Before You Start](#before-you-start)
  - [Identify Your Principles](#identify-your-principles)
  - [Picking A Linux Distribution](#picking-a-linux-distribution)
  - [Installing Linux](#installing-linux)
-  - [Pre/Post Installation](#prepost-installation)
+  - [Pre/Post Installation Requirements](#prepost-installation-requirements)
  - [Other Important Notes](#other-important-notes)
- [The Main Event](#the-main-event)
+- [The Basics](#the-basics)
  - [SSH Public/Private Keys](#ssh-publicprivate-keys)
  - [Limit Who Can Use `sudo`](#limit-who-can-use-sudo)
  - [Secure SSH](#secure-ssh)
@@ -29,21 +28,26 @@ An evolving how-to guide for securing a Linux server that, hopefully, also teach
    - [Secure `/etc/ssh/sshd_config`](#secure-etcsshsshd_config)
    - [Deactivate Short Moduli](#deactivate-short-moduli)
  - [NTP Client](#ntp-client)
  - [`[NS]` Configure Gmail as MTA](#ns-configure-gmail-as-mta)
  - [UFW: Uncomplicated Firewall](#ufw-uncomplicated-firewall)
  - [PSAD: `iptables` Intrusion Detection And Prevention](#psad-iptables-intrusion-detection-and-prevention)
  - [`[NS]` Separate `iptables` Log File](#ns-separate-iptables-log-file)
  - [Fail2ban: Application Intrusion Detection And Prevention](#fail2ban-application-intrusion-detection-and-prevention)
  - [`[DZ]` Linux Kernel `sysctl` Hardening](#dz-linux-kernel-sysctl-hardening)
  - [`[DZ]` Password Protect GRUB](#dz-password-protect-grub)
  - [`[DZ]` Disable Root Login](#dz-disable-root-login)
  - [`[DZ]` Change Default `umask`](#dz-change-default-umask)
  - [Force Accounts To Use Secure Passwords](#force-accounts-to-use-secure-passwords)
  - [2FA/MFA for SSH](#2famfa-for-ssh)
  - [Apticron - Automatic Update Notifier](#apticron---automatic-update-notifier)
-  - [`[DZ]` Orphaned Software](#dz-orphaned-software)
+- [The Firewall](#the-firewall)
  - [UFW: Uncomplicated Firewall](#ufw-uncomplicated-firewall)
  - [PSAD: `iptables` Intrusion Detection And Prevention](#psad-iptables-intrusion-detection-and-prevention)
  - [Fail2ban: Application Intrusion Detection And Prevention](#fail2ban-application-intrusion-detection-and-prevention)
 - [The Danger Zone](#the-danger-zone)
  - [Proceed At Your Own Risk](#proceed-at-your-own-risk)
  - [Linux Kernel `sysctl` Hardening](#linux-kernel-sysctl-hardening)
  - [Password Protect GRUB](#password-protect-grub)
  - [Disable Root Login](#disable-root-login)
  - [Change Default `umask`](#change-default-umask)
  - [Orphaned Software](#orphaned-software)
 - [The Auditing](#the-auditing)
  - [Lynis - Linux Security Auditing](#lynis---linux-security-auditing)
- [Miscellaneous](#miscellaneous)
+- [The Miscellaneous](#the-miscellaneous)
  - [Configure Gmail as MTA](#configure-gmail-as-mta)
  - [Separate `iptables` Log File](#separate-iptables-log-file)
 - [Left Over](#left-over)
  - [Contacting Me](#contacting-me)
  - [Additional References](#additional-references)
  - [Acknowledgments](#acknowledgments)
@@ -90,7 +94,7 @@ IT automation tools like [Ansible](https://www.ansible.com/), [Chef](https://www
 ### To Do / To Add
 - [ ] [Custom Jails for Fail2ban](#custom-jails)
- [x] [Linux Kernel `sysctl` Hardening](#dz-linux-kernel-sysctl-hardening)
+- [x] [Linux Kernel `sysctl` Hardening](#linux-kernel-sysctl-hardening)
 - [ ] [Security-Enhanced Linux / SELinux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security-Enhanced_Linux)
 - [ ] disk encryption
 - [x] BIOS password
@@ -143,18 +147,6 @@ To help put context to many of the topics covered in this guide, my use-case/con
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### Safe vs. DANGER ZONE
 Some of the sections in this guide are generally considered safe and shouldn't make your system unusable.
 Some sections cover things that are high risk because there is a possibility they can make your system unusable, or are considered unnecessary by many because the risks outweigh any rewards. These sections are tagged with **`[DZ]`** and the content is hidden by default. **!! PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK !!**
 Some sections are not necessary to secure your server but are still helpful. For example, you don't need to [configure your server to send `mail` through Gmail](#ns-configure-gmail-as-mta) but you will want someway to send e-mails so you get critical system/security alerts. These  sections are tagged with **`[NS]`**.
 Regardless of the section, as is with **anything** in this guide, **use with caution and proceed at your own risk**.
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### Editing Configuration Files - For The Lazy
 I am very lazy and do not like to edit files by hand if I don't need to. I also assume everyone else is just like me. :)
@@ -190,7 +182,7 @@ Before you start you will want to identify what your Principles are. What is you
  - Is physical access to your server/network a possible attack vector? 
  - Will you be opening ports on your router so you can access your server from outside your home?
  - Will you be hosting a file share on your server that will be mounted on a desktop class machine? What is the possibility of the desktop machine getting infected and, in turn, infecting the server?
- - Do you have a means of recovering if your security implementation locks you out of your own server? For example, you [disabled root login](#dz-disable-root-login) or [password protected GRUB](#dz-password-protect-grub).
+ - Do you have a means of recovering if your security implementation locks you out of your own server? For example, you [disabled root login](#disable-root-login) or [password protected GRUB](#password-protect-grub).
 These are just **a few things** to think about. Before you start securing your server you will want to understand what you're trying to protect against and why so you know what you need to do.
@@ -222,17 +214,18 @@ Where applicable, use the expert install option so you have tighter control of w
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-### Pre/Post Installation
+### Pre/Post Installation Requirements
 - If you're opening ports on your router so you can access your server from the outside, disable the port forwarding until your system is up and secured. 
 - Unless you're doing everything physically connected to your server, you'll need remote access so be sure SSH works.
- Be sure to keep your system up-to-date (i.e. `sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade` on Debian based systems).
+- Keep your system up-to-date (i.e. `sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade` on Debian based systems).
- <a name="post-install"></a>At some point, like maybe right after configuring [SSH public/private keys](#ssh-publicprivate-keys), make sure you perform any tasks specific to your setup like:
+- Make sure you perform any tasks specific to your setup like:
-  - configuring network
+  - Configuring network
-  - configuring mount points in `/etc/fstab`
+  - Configuring mount points in `/etc/fstab`
-  - creating the initial user accounts
+  - Creating the initial user accounts
-  - etc...
+  - Installing core software you'll want like `man`
- Your server will need to be able to send e-mails so you can get important security alerts. If you're not setting up a mail server check [Configure Gmail as MTA](#ns-configure-gmail-as-mta). 
+  - Etc...
 - Your server will need to be able to send e-mails so you can get important security alerts. If you're not setting up a mail server check [Configure Gmail as MTA](#configure-gmail-as-mta). 
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
@@ -245,7 +238,7 @@ Where applicable, use the expert install option so you have tighter control of w
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-## The Main Event
+## The Basics
 ### SSH Public/Private Keys
@@ -658,96 +651,228 @@ Many security protocols leverage the time. If your system time is incorrect, it
    > -69.195.159.158  128.252.19.1     2 u  119   64    2   42.990    6.302   3.507
    > -200.89.75.198 ( 200.27.106.115   2 u   58   64    3  160.786   42.737  12.827
    > ```
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-### `[NS]` Configure Gmail as MTA
+### Force Accounts To Use Secure Passwords
 #### Why
-Unless you're planning on setting up your own mail server, you'll need a way to send e-mails from your server. This will be important for system alerts/messages.
+By default, accounts can use any password they want, including bad ones. [pwquality](https://linux.die.net/man/5/pwquality.conf)/[pam_pwquality](https://linux.die.net/man/8/pam_pwquality) addresses this security gap by providing "a way to configure the default password quality requirements for the system passwords" and checking "its strength against a system dictionary and a set of rules for identifying poor choices."
-You can use any Gmail account but I recommend you create one specific for this server. That way if your server **is** compromised, the bad-actor won't have any passwords for your primary account. Granted, if you have 2FA/MFA enabled and you use an app password, there isn't much a bad-actor can do with just the app password but why take the risk?
+#### Goal
-#### Goals
+- enforced strong passwords
 - `mail` configured to send e-mails from your server using [Gmail](https://mail.google.com/)
 #### References
 - https://php.quicoto.com/setup-exim4-to-use-gmail-in-ubuntu/
 #### Steps
-1. Install `exim4`.
+1. Install `libpam-pwquality`.
    On Debian based systems:
    ``` bash
-    sudo apt install exim4
+    sudo apt install libpam-pwquality
    ```
-1. Configure `exim4`:
+1. Tell PAM to use `libpam-pwquality` to enforce strong passwords by editing the file `/etc/pam.d/common-password` and **change** the line that starts like this:
    ```
    password        requisite                       pam_pwquality.so
    ```
-    For Debian based systems:
+    to this:
    ```
    password        requisite                       pam_pwquality.so retry=3 minlen=10 difok=3 ucredit=-1 lcredit=-1 dcredit=-1 ocredit=-1 maxrepeat=3 gecoschec
    ```
   The above options are:
     - `retry=3` = prompt user 3 times before returning with error.
     - `minlen=10` = the minimum length of the password, factoring in any credits (or debits) from these:
       - `dcredit=-1` = must have at least **one digit**
       - `ucredit=-1` = must have at least **one upper case letter**
       - `lcredit=-1` = must have at least **one lower case letter**
       - `ocredit=-1` = must have at least **one non-alphanumeric character**
     - `difok=3` = at least 3 characters from the new password cannot have been in the old password
     - `maxrepeat=3` = allow a maximum of 3 repeated characters
     - `gecoschec` = do not allow passwords with the account's name
    [For the lazy](#editing-configuration-files---for-the-lazy):
    ``` bash
-    sudo dpkg-reconfigure exim4-config
+    sudo cp --preserve /etc/pam.d/common-password /etc/pam.d/common-password.$(date +"%Y%m%d%H%M%S")
    sudo sed -i -r -e "s/^(password\s+requisite\s+pam_pwquality.so)(.*)$/# \1\2         # commented by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")\n\1 retry=3 minlen=10 difok=3 ucredit=-1 lcredit=-1 dcredit=-1 ocredit=-1 maxrepeat=3 gecoschec         # added by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")/" /etc/pam.d/common-password
    ```
    You'll be prompted with some questions:
    |Prompt|Answer|
    |--:|--|
    |General type of mail configuration|`mail sent by smarthost; no local mail`|
    |System mail name|(default)|
    |IP-addresses to listen on for incoming SMTP connections|`127.0.0.1`|
    |Other destinations for which mail is accepted|(default)|
    |Visible domain name for local users|(default)|
    |IP address or host name of the outgoing smarthost|`smtp.gmail.com::587`|
    |Keep number of DNS-queries minimal (Dial-on-Demand)?|`No`|
    |Split configuration into small files?|`No`|
 1. Make a backup of `/etc/exim4/passwd.client`:
    ``` bash
        sudo cp /etc/exim4/passwd.client /etc/exim4/passwd.client.$(date +"%Y%m%d%H%M%S")
    ```
 1. **Add** a line like this to `/etc/exim4/passwd.client`
    ```
    *.google.com:yourAccount@gmail.com:yourPassword
    ```
    Replace `yourAccount@gmail.com` and `yourPassword` with your details. If you have 2FA/MFA enabled on your Gmail then you'll need to create and use an app password.
 1. This file has your Gmail password so we need to lock it down:
    ``` bash
    sudo chown root:Debian-exim /etc/exim4/passwd.client
    sudo chmod 640 /etc/exim4/passwd.client
    ```
 1. Restart `exim4`:
    ``` bash
    sudo service exim4 restart
    ```
 1. Add some mail aliases so we can send e-mails to local accounts by **adding** lines like this to `/etc/aliases`:
    ```
    user1: user1@gmail.com
    user2: user2@gmail.com
    ...
    ```
    You'll need to add all the local accounts that exist on your server.
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### 2FA/MFA for SSH
 #### Why
 Even though SSH is a pretty good security guard for your doors and windows, it is still a visible door that bad-actors can see and try to brute-force in. [Fail2ban](#fail2ban-application-intrusion-detection-and-prevention) will monitor for these brute-force attempts but there is no such thing as being too secure.
 Using Two Factor Authentication (2FA) / Multi Factor Authentication (MFA) requires anyone entering to have **two** keys to enter which makes it harder for bad actors. The two keys are:
 1. Their password 
 1. A 6 digit token that changes every 30 seconds
 Without both keys, they won't be able to get in.
 #### Why Not
 Many folks might find the experience cumbersome or annoying. And, access to your system is dependent on the accompanying authenticator app that generates the code.
 #### Goals
 - 2FA/MFA enabled for all SSH connections
 #### Notes
 - Before you do this, you should have an idea of how 2FA/MFA works and you'll need an authenticator app on your phone to continue. 
 - We'll use [google-authenticator-libpam](https://github.com/google/google-authenticator-libpam).
 - With the below configuration, a user will only need to enter their 2FA/MFA code if they are logging on with their password but **not** if they are using [SSH public/private keys](#ssh-publicprivate-keys). Check the documentation on how to change this behavior to suite your requirements.
 #### References
 - https://github.com/google/google-authenticator-libpam
 #### Steps
 1. Install it `libpam-google-authenticator`.
    On Debian based systems:
    ``` bash
    sudo apt install libpam-google-authenticator
    ```
 1. **Make sure you're logged in as the ID you want to enable 2FA/MFA for** and **execute** `google-authenticator` to create the necessary token data:
    ``` bash
    google-authenticator
    ```
    > ```
    > Do you want authentication tokens to be time-based (y/n) y
    > https://www.google.com/chart?chs=200x200&chld=M|0&cht=qr&chl=otpauth://totp/user@host%3Fsecret%3DR4ZWX34FQKZROVX7AGLJ64684Y%26issuer%3Dhost
    > 
    > ...
    > 
    > Your new secret key is: R3NVX3FFQKZROVX7AGLJUGGESY
    > Your verification code is 751419
    > Your emergency scratch codes are:
    >   12345678
    >   90123456
    >   78901234
    >   56789012
    >   34567890
    > 
    > Do you want me to update your "/home/user/.google_authenticator" file (y/n) y
    > 
    > Do you want to disallow multiple uses of the same authentication
    > token? This restricts you to one login about every 30s, but it increases
    > your chances to notice or even prevent man-in-the-middle attacks (y/n) Do you want to disallow multiple uses of the same authentication
    > token? This restricts you to one login about every 30s, but it increases
    > your chances to notice or even prevent man-in-the-middle attacks (y/n) y
    > 
    > By default, tokens are good for 30 seconds. In order to compensate for
    > possible time-skew between the client and the server, we allow an extra
    > token before and after the current time. If you experience problems with
    > poor time synchronization, you can increase the window from its default
    > size of +-1min (window size of 3) to about +-4min (window size of
    > 17 acceptable tokens).
    > Do you want to do so? (y/n) y
    > 
    > If the computer that you are logging into isn't hardened against brute-force
    > login attempts, you can enable rate-limiting for the authentication module.
    > By default, this limits attackers to no more than 3 login attempts every 30s.
    > Do you want to enable rate-limiting (y/n) y
    > ```
    Notice this is **not run as root**.
    Select default option (y in most cases) for all the questions it asks and remember to save the emergency scratch codes.
 1. Now we need to enable it as an authentication method for SSH by **adding** this line to `/etc/pam.d/sshd`:
    ```
    auth       required     pam_google_authenticator.so nullok
    ```
    Check [here](https://github.com/google/google-authenticator-libpam/blob/master/README.md#nullok) for what `nullok` means.
    [For the lazy](#editing-configuration-files---for-the-lazy):
    ``` bash
    sudo cp --preserve /etc/pam.d/sshd /etc/pam.d/sshd.$(date +"%Y%m%d%H%M%S")
    echo -e "\nauth       required     pam_google_authenticator.so nullok         # added by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")" | sudo tee -a /etc/pam.d/sshd
    ```
 1. Tell SSH to levearage it by **adding** this line in `/etc/ssh/sshd_config`:
    ```
    ChallengeResponseAuthentication yes
    ```
    [For the lazy](#editing-configuration-files---for-the-lazy):
    ``` bash
    sudo cp --preserve /etc/ssh/sshd_config /etc/ssh/sshd_config.$(date +"%Y%m%d%H%M%S")
    echo -e "\nChallengeResponseAuthentication yes         # added by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")" | sudo tee -a /etc/ssh/sshd_config
    ```
 1. Restart `ssh`:
    ``` bash
    sudo service sshd restart
    ```
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### Apticron - Automatic Update Notifier
 #### Why
 It is important to keep your server up-to-date with all security patches. Otherwise you're at risk of known security vulnerabilities that bad-actors could use to gain unauthorized access to your server.
 You have two options:
 - Configure your server for unattended updates
 - Be notified when updates are available
 Which option you pick is up to you but I prefer being notified by e-mail when updates are available. This is because an update may break something else. If the server updates it-self then I may not know and, if I do find out, I'll have to scramble to fix it. If it e-mails me when updates are available, then I can do the updates at my schedule.
 #### Notes
 - Your server will need a way to send e-mails for this to work
 #### References
 - https://wiki.debian.org/UnattendedUpgrades#apt-listchanges
 - https://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/apt-get-apticron-send-email-upgrades-available/
 - https://www.unixmen.com/how-to-get-email-notifications-for-new-updates-on-debianubuntu/
 #### Steps
 1. Install `apticron`.
    On Debian based systems:
    ``` bash
    sudo apt install apticron
    ```
 1. Set the value of `EMAIL` in `/etc/apticron/apticron.conf` to your e-mail address. 
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ## The Firewall
 ### UFW: Uncomplicated Firewall
 #### Why
@@ -921,7 +1046,6 @@ You can create rules by explicitly specifying the ports or with application conf
    > 587/tcp (Mail submission (v6)) ALLOW OUT   Anywhere (v6)              # allow mail out
    > 43/tcp (v6)                ALLOW OUT   Anywhere (v6)              # allow whois
    > ```
 #### Default Applications
@@ -1173,72 +1297,6 @@ And, since we're already using [UFW](#ufw-uncomplicated-firewall) so we'll follo
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### `[NS]` Separate `iptables` Log File
 #### Why
 There will come a time when you'll need to look through your `iptables` logs. Having all the `iptables` logs go to their own file will make it a lot easier to find what you're looking for.
 #### References
 - https://blog.shadypixel.com/log-iptables-messages-to-a-separate-file-with-rsyslog/
 - https://gist.github.com/netson/c45b2dc4e835761fbccc
 - https://www.rsyslog.com/doc/v8-stable/configuration/actions.html
 #### Steps
 1. The first step is by telling your firewall to prefix all log entries with some unique string. If you're using `iptables` directly, you would do something like `--log-prefix "[IPTABLES] "` for all the rules. We took care of this in step [step 4 of installing `psad`](#psad_step4).
 1. After you've added a prefix to the firewall logs, we need to tell `rsyslog` to send those lines to its own file. Do this by **creating** the file `/etc/rsyslog.d/10-iptables.conf` and **adding** this:
    ```
    :msg, contains, "[IPTABLES] " /var/log/iptables.log
    & stop
    ```
    If you're expecting a lot if data being logged by your firewall, prefix the filename with a `-` ["to omit syncing the file after every logging"](https://www.rsyslog.com/doc/v8-stable/configuration/actions.html#regular-file). For example:
    ```
    :msg, contains, "[IPTABLES] " -/var/log/iptables.log
    & stop
    ```
    **Note**: Remember to change the prefix to whatever you use.
 1. Since we're logging firewall messages to a different file, we need to tell `psad` where the new file is. Edit `/etc/psad/psad.conf` and set `IPT_SYSLOG_FILE` to the path of the log file. For example:
    ```
    IPT_SYSLOG_FILE /var/log/iptables.log;
    ```
 1. Restart `psad` and `rsyslog` to activate the changes (or reboot):
    ``` bash
    sudo psad -R
    sudo psad --sig-update
    sudo psad -H
    sudo service rsyslog restart
    ```
 1. The last thing we have to do is tell `logrotate` to rotate the new log file so it doesn't get to big and fill up our disk. **Create** the file `/etc/logrotate.d/iptables` and **add** this:
    ```
    /var/log/iptables.log
    {
        rotate 7
        daily
        missingok
        notifempty
        delaycompress
        compress
        postrotate
            invoke-rc.d rsyslog rotate > /dev/null
        endscript
    }
    ```
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### Fail2ban: Application Intrusion Detection And Prevention
 #### Why
@@ -1365,7 +1423,17 @@ fail2ban-client set sshd unbanip 192.168.1.100
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-### `[DZ]` Linux Kernel `sysctl` Hardening
+## The Danger Zone
 ### Proceed At Your Own Risk
 This sections cover things that are high risk because there is a possibility they can make your system unusable, or are considered unnecessary by many because the risks outweigh any rewards.
 **!! PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK !!**
 <details><summary>!! PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK !!</summary>
 ### Linux Kernel `sysctl` Hardening
 <details><summary>!! PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK !!</summary>
@@ -1441,11 +1509,11 @@ I won't provide [For the lazy](#editing-configuration-files---for-the-lazy) code
 sudo sysctl -p >/dev/null
 ```
-</details>
+</details><br />
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-### `[DZ]` Password Protect GRUB
+### Password Protect GRUB
 <details><summary>!! PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK !!</summary>
@@ -1542,11 +1610,11 @@ If you forget the password, you'll have to go through [some work](https://www.cy
    sudo update-grub
    ```
-</details>
+</details><br />
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-### `[DZ]` Disable Root Login
+### Disable Root Login
 <details><summary>!! PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK !!</summary>
@@ -1594,11 +1662,11 @@ An alternative to locking the **root** acount is set a long/complicated **root**
    sudo passwd -l root
    ```
-</details>
+</details><br />
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-### `[DZ]` Change Default `umask`
+### Change Default `umask`
 <details><summary>!! PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK !!</summary>
@@ -1676,228 +1744,11 @@ Changing the default `umask` can create unexpected problems. For example, if you
    echo -e "\numask 0077         # added by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")" | sudo tee -a /root/.bashrc
    ```
-</details>
+</details><br />
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-### Force Accounts To Use Secure Passwords
+### Orphaned Software
 #### Why
 By default, accounts can use any password they want, including bad ones. [pwquality](https://linux.die.net/man/5/pwquality.conf)/[pam_pwquality](https://linux.die.net/man/8/pam_pwquality) addresses this security gap by providing "a way to configure the default password quality requirements for the system passwords" and checking "its strength against a system dictionary and a set of rules for identifying poor choices."
 #### Goal
 - enforced strong passwords
 #### Steps
 1. Install `libpam-pwquality`.
    On Debian based systems:
    ``` bash
    sudo apt install libpam-pwquality
    ```
 1. Tell PAM to use `libpam-pwquality` to enforce strong passwords by editing the file `/etc/pam.d/common-password` and **change** the line that starts like this:
    ```
    password        requisite                       pam_pwquality.so
    ```
    to this:
    ```
    password        requisite                       pam_pwquality.so retry=3 minlen=10 difok=3 ucredit=-1 lcredit=-1 dcredit=-1 ocredit=-1 maxrepeat=3 gecoschec
    ```
   The above options are:
     - `retry=3` = prompt user 3 times before returning with error.
     - `minlen=10` = the minimum length of the password, factoring in any credits (or debits) from these:
       - `dcredit=-1` = must have at least **one digit**
       - `ucredit=-1` = must have at least **one upper case letter**
       - `lcredit=-1` = must have at least **one lower case letter**
       - `ocredit=-1` = must have at least **one non-alphanumeric character**
     - `difok=3` = at least 3 characters from the new password cannot have been in the old password
     - `maxrepeat=3` = allow a maximum of 3 repeated characters
     - `gecoschec` = do not allow passwords with the account's name
    [For the lazy](#editing-configuration-files---for-the-lazy):
    ``` bash
    sudo cp --preserve /etc/pam.d/common-password /etc/pam.d/common-password.$(date +"%Y%m%d%H%M%S")
    sudo sed -i -r -e "s/^(password\s+requisite\s+pam_pwquality.so)(.*)$/# \1\2         # commented by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")\n\1 retry=3 minlen=10 difok=3 ucredit=-1 lcredit=-1 dcredit=-1 ocredit=-1 maxrepeat=3 gecoschec         # added by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")/" /etc/pam.d/common-password
    ```
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### 2FA/MFA for SSH
 #### Why
 Even though SSH is a pretty good security guard for your doors and windows, it is still a visible door that bad-actors can see and try to brute-force in. [Fail2ban](#fail2ban-application-intrusion-detection-and-prevention) will monitor for these brute-force attempts but there is no such thing as being too secure.
 Using Two Factor Authentication (2FA) / Multi Factor Authentication (MFA) requires anyone entering to have **two** keys to enter which makes it harder for bad actors. The two keys are:
 1. Their password 
 1. A 6 digit token that changes every 30 seconds
 Without both keys, they won't be able to get in.
 #### Why Not
 Many folks might find the experience cumbersome or annoying. And, access to your system is dependent on the accompanying authenticator app that generates the code.
 #### Goals
 - 2FA/MFA enabled for all SSH connections
 #### Notes
 - Before you do this, you should have an idea of how 2FA/MFA works and you'll need an authenticator app on your phone to continue. 
 - We'll use [google-authenticator-libpam](https://github.com/google/google-authenticator-libpam).
 - With the below configuration, a user will only need to enter their 2FA/MFA code if they are logging on with their password but **not** if they are using [SSH public/private keys](#ssh-publicprivate-keys). Check the documentation on how to change this behavior to suite your requirements.
 #### References
 - https://github.com/google/google-authenticator-libpam
 #### Steps
 1. Install it `libpam-google-authenticator`.
    On Debian based systems:
    ``` bash
    sudo apt install libpam-google-authenticator
    ```
 1. **Make sure you're logged in as the ID you want to enable 2FA/MFA for** and **execute** `google-authenticator` to create the necessary token data:
    ``` bash
    google-authenticator
    ```
    > ```
    > Do you want authentication tokens to be time-based (y/n) y
    > https://www.google.com/chart?chs=200x200&chld=M|0&cht=qr&chl=otpauth://totp/user@host%3Fsecret%3DR4ZWX34FQKZROVX7AGLJ64684Y%26issuer%3Dhost
    > 
    > ...
    > 
    > Your new secret key is: R3NVX3FFQKZROVX7AGLJUGGESY
    > Your verification code is 751419
    > Your emergency scratch codes are:
    >   12345678
    >   90123456
    >   78901234
    >   56789012
    >   34567890
    > 
    > Do you want me to update your "/home/user/.google_authenticator" file (y/n) y
    > 
    > Do you want to disallow multiple uses of the same authentication
    > token? This restricts you to one login about every 30s, but it increases
    > your chances to notice or even prevent man-in-the-middle attacks (y/n) Do you want to disallow multiple uses of the same authentication
    > token? This restricts you to one login about every 30s, but it increases
    > your chances to notice or even prevent man-in-the-middle attacks (y/n) y
    > 
    > By default, tokens are good for 30 seconds. In order to compensate for
    > possible time-skew between the client and the server, we allow an extra
    > token before and after the current time. If you experience problems with
    > poor time synchronization, you can increase the window from its default
    > size of +-1min (window size of 3) to about +-4min (window size of
    > 17 acceptable tokens).
    > Do you want to do so? (y/n) y
    > 
    > If the computer that you are logging into isn't hardened against brute-force
    > login attempts, you can enable rate-limiting for the authentication module.
    > By default, this limits attackers to no more than 3 login attempts every 30s.
    > Do you want to enable rate-limiting (y/n) y
    > ```
    Notice this is **not run as root**.
    Select default option (y in most cases) for all the questions it asks and remember to save the emergency scratch codes.
 1. Now we need to enable it as an authentication method for SSH by **adding** this line to `/etc/pam.d/sshd`:
    ```
    auth       required     pam_google_authenticator.so nullok
    ```
    Check [here](https://github.com/google/google-authenticator-libpam/blob/master/README.md#nullok) for what `nullok` means.
    [For the lazy](#editing-configuration-files---for-the-lazy):
    ``` bash
    sudo cp --preserve /etc/pam.d/sshd /etc/pam.d/sshd.$(date +"%Y%m%d%H%M%S")
    echo -e "\nauth       required     pam_google_authenticator.so nullok         # added by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")" | sudo tee -a /etc/pam.d/sshd
    ```
 1. Tell SSH to levearage it by **adding** this line in `/etc/ssh/sshd_config`:
    ```
    ChallengeResponseAuthentication yes
    ```
    [For the lazy](#editing-configuration-files---for-the-lazy):
    ``` bash
    sudo cp --preserve /etc/ssh/sshd_config /etc/ssh/sshd_config.$(date +"%Y%m%d%H%M%S")
    echo -e "\nChallengeResponseAuthentication yes         # added by $(whoami) on $(date +"%Y-%m-%d @ %H:%M:%S")" | sudo tee -a /etc/ssh/sshd_config
    ```
 1. Restart `ssh`:
    ``` bash
    sudo service sshd restart
    ```
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### Apticron - Automatic Update Notifier
 #### Why
 It is important to keep your server up-to-date with all security patches. Otherwise you're at risk of known security vulnerabilities that bad-actors could use to gain unauthorized access to your server.
 You have two options:
 - Configure your server for unattended updates
 - Be notified when updates are available
 Which option you pick is up to you but I prefer being notified by e-mail when updates are available. This is because an update may break something else. If the server updates it-self then I may not know and, if I do find out, I'll have to scramble to fix it. If it e-mails me when updates are available, then I can do the updates at my schedule.
 #### Notes
 - Your server will need a way to send e-mails for this to work
 #### References
 - https://wiki.debian.org/UnattendedUpgrades#apt-listchanges
 - https://www.cyberciti.biz/faq/apt-get-apticron-send-email-upgrades-available/
 - https://www.unixmen.com/how-to-get-email-notifications-for-new-updates-on-debianubuntu/
 #### Steps
 1. Install `apticron`.
    On Debian based systems:
    ``` bash
    sudo apt install apticron
    ```
 1. Set the value of `EMAIL` in `/etc/apticron/apticron.conf` to your e-mail address. 
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### `[DZ]` Orphaned Software
 <details><summary>!! PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK !!</summary>
@@ -1945,8 +1796,12 @@ For Debian based distributions, you can use [`deborphan`](http://freshmeat.sourc
 </details>
 </details><br />
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ## The Auditing
 ### Lynis - Linux Security Auditing
 #### Why
@@ -2000,7 +1855,160 @@ From [https://cisofy.com/lynis/](https://cisofy.com/lynis/):
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
-## Miscellaneous
+## The Miscellaneous
 ### Configure Gmail as MTA
 #### Why
 Unless you're planning on setting up your own mail server, you'll need a way to send e-mails from your server. This will be important for system alerts/messages.
 You can use any Gmail account but I recommend you create one specific for this server. That way if your server **is** compromised, the bad-actor won't have any passwords for your primary account. Granted, if you have 2FA/MFA enabled and you use an app password, there isn't much a bad-actor can do with just the app password but why take the risk?
 #### Goals
 - `mail` configured to send e-mails from your server using [Gmail](https://mail.google.com/)
 #### References
 - https://php.quicoto.com/setup-exim4-to-use-gmail-in-ubuntu/
 #### Steps
 1. Install `exim4`.
    On Debian based systems:
    ``` bash
    sudo apt install exim4
    ```
 1. Configure `exim4`:
    For Debian based systems:
    ``` bash
    sudo dpkg-reconfigure exim4-config
    ```
    You'll be prompted with some questions:
    |Prompt|Answer|
    |--:|--|
    |General type of mail configuration|`mail sent by smarthost; no local mail`|
    |System mail name|(default)|
    |IP-addresses to listen on for incoming SMTP connections|`127.0.0.1`|
    |Other destinations for which mail is accepted|(default)|
    |Visible domain name for local users|(default)|
    |IP address or host name of the outgoing smarthost|`smtp.gmail.com::587`|
    |Keep number of DNS-queries minimal (Dial-on-Demand)?|`No`|
    |Split configuration into small files?|`No`|
 1. Make a backup of `/etc/exim4/passwd.client`:
    ``` bash
        sudo cp /etc/exim4/passwd.client /etc/exim4/passwd.client.$(date +"%Y%m%d%H%M%S")
    ```
 1. **Add** a line like this to `/etc/exim4/passwd.client`
    ```
    *.google.com:yourAccount@gmail.com:yourPassword
    ```
    Replace `yourAccount@gmail.com` and `yourPassword` with your details. If you have 2FA/MFA enabled on your Gmail then you'll need to create and use an app password.
 1. This file has your Gmail password so we need to lock it down:
    ``` bash
    sudo chown root:Debian-exim /etc/exim4/passwd.client
    sudo chmod 640 /etc/exim4/passwd.client
    ```
 1. Restart `exim4`:
    ``` bash
    sudo service exim4 restart
    ```
 1. Add some mail aliases so we can send e-mails to local accounts by **adding** lines like this to `/etc/aliases`:
    ```
    user1: user1@gmail.com
    user2: user2@gmail.com
    ...
    ```
    You'll need to add all the local accounts that exist on your server.
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ### Separate `iptables` Log File
 #### Why
 There will come a time when you'll need to look through your `iptables` logs. Having all the `iptables` logs go to their own file will make it a lot easier to find what you're looking for.
 #### References
 - https://blog.shadypixel.com/log-iptables-messages-to-a-separate-file-with-rsyslog/
 - https://gist.github.com/netson/c45b2dc4e835761fbccc
 - https://www.rsyslog.com/doc/v8-stable/configuration/actions.html
 #### Steps
 1. The first step is by telling your firewall to prefix all log entries with some unique string. If you're using `iptables` directly, you would do something like `--log-prefix "[IPTABLES] "` for all the rules. We took care of this in step [step 4 of installing `psad`](#psad_step4).
 1. After you've added a prefix to the firewall logs, we need to tell `rsyslog` to send those lines to its own file. Do this by **creating** the file `/etc/rsyslog.d/10-iptables.conf` and **adding** this:
    ```
    :msg, contains, "[IPTABLES] " /var/log/iptables.log
    & stop
    ```
    If you're expecting a lot if data being logged by your firewall, prefix the filename with a `-` ["to omit syncing the file after every logging"](https://www.rsyslog.com/doc/v8-stable/configuration/actions.html#regular-file). For example:
    ```
    :msg, contains, "[IPTABLES] " -/var/log/iptables.log
    & stop
    ```
    **Note**: Remember to change the prefix to whatever you use.
 1. Since we're logging firewall messages to a different file, we need to tell `psad` where the new file is. Edit `/etc/psad/psad.conf` and set `IPT_SYSLOG_FILE` to the path of the log file. For example:
    ```
    IPT_SYSLOG_FILE /var/log/iptables.log;
    ```
 1. Restart `psad` and `rsyslog` to activate the changes (or reboot):
    ``` bash
    sudo psad -R
    sudo psad --sig-update
    sudo psad -H
    sudo service rsyslog restart
    ```
 1. The last thing we have to do is tell `logrotate` to rotate the new log file so it doesn't get to big and fill up our disk. **Create** the file `/etc/logrotate.d/iptables` and **add** this:
    ```
    /var/log/iptables.log
    {
        rotate 7
        daily
        missingok
        notifempty
        delaycompress
        compress
        postrotate
            invoke-rc.d rsyslog rotate > /dev/null
        endscript
    }
    ```
 ([Table of Contents](#table-of-contents))
 ## Left Over
 ### Contacting Me